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Sunday marks 100 days since the United States and Israel launched war on Iran – a conflict that has triggered a global energy crisis and darkened the global economic outlook.
The war, which Iran has called an “unprovoked act of aggression”, has expanded to Gulf nations as well as Lebanon. A fragile ceasefire has been in place since April 8, but Israel has continued its offensive in Lebanon, killing more than 3,000 people.
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America’s European allies did not condemn the US-Israeli attacks, but declined to get involved in the war and expressed their opposition to regime change. The Gulf countries also condemned the Iranian attacks on their territories.
Russia and China, the world’s second-largest economy, also pushed back against the war.
Countries around the world affected by rising oil prices and market volatility have called for a diplomatic solution to the conflict, with Pakistan playing a major role in mediating talks.
On Wednesday, Israel and Lebanon renewed the ceasefire agreed on April 16. But that has not stopped Israel from carrying out its attacks on Lebanon, which Tehran has said are a violation of the April 8 ceasefire between Washington and New Delhi.
As diplomacy to negotiate a deal between the warring parties drags on, we break down how the rest of the world initially reacted to the war, how affected countries’ positions have evolved, and where they stand now.
Gulf states have been caught up in the war since it began on February 28, with Iran launching missile and drone strikes against US military assets hosted on their soil. But Gulf countries have accused Iran of also targeting civilian sites, including airports and energy facilities.
Hundreds of days into the war, sporadic attacks continue. Here’s how some countries have been reacting.
Oman – As the main mediator of the US-Iran nuclear talks, Oman initially expressed dismay when the war was launched while nuclear talks were under way. Foreign Minister Badr Albusaidi said the conflict would not serve US interests, nor the interests of global peace. Unlike other US allies in the Gulf, such as Qatar, Bahrain and the UAE, Oman does not host US forces.
It was nevertheless dragged into the conflict when Iran launched a flurry of retaliatory attacks on US military assets and energy infrastructure across the Gulf region. The Duqm commercial port, located in Al Wusta governorate in central Oman, was struck by two drones on March 1. A fuel tank at the port was also hit in a drone attack two days later. The Salalah port in the country’s west was hit at least twice by drones. Two foreigners were killed in a drone attack in Sohar province on March 13.
Iran, which has friendly ties with Oman, has denied it was behind the attacks.
In a March 18 article for the Economist, Albusaidi said the US has “lost control of its own foreign policy” and accused Israel of persuading US President Donald Trump’s administration to go to war with Iran. He also said the conflict was a “catastrophe” and a “grave miscalculation”. Last month, Trump threatened Oman with military force if it got involved in the dispute over access to the Strait of Hormuz, a vital shipping route that Iran has choked off during the conflict.
Qatar – When the war began, Qatar strongly condemned Iran for firing missiles targeting its territory, which is home to the Al Udeid airbase that hosts US troops. Qatar expelled several Iranian military and diplomatic personnel from the country following an attack on QatarEnergy’s liquefied natural gas (LNG) facility at Ras Laffan.
A long-range US AN/FPS-132 missile early-warning radar in Qatar was also damaged by Iranian missiles.
Qatar has called for de-escalation and dialogue to end the war. In a phone call, Qatar’s Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani told Trump of the need to prioritise political and diplomatic solutions and dialogue among all parties to consolidate regional security and stability and spare the region further tension and escalation.
Trump expressed his appreciation for the role played by the State of Qatar in supporting Pakistan’s mediation efforts and strengthening channels of communication among the various parties.
Doha has been in communication with Iranian officials. Iran’s Foreign Minister Abbas Araghchi and its main negotiator, Parliament Speaker Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, visited Qatar in May as part of diplomatic efforts to end the conflict.
United Arab Emirates (UAE) – When the war began, the UAE’s Ministry of Defence condemned in the “strongest terms” Iran’s attacks on its territory, several of which it said its air defences intercepted. It called the attack “a dangerous escalation and a cowardly act that threatens the security and safety of civilians”, stressing that the UAE has the “full right” to respond.
According to a May 29 report by the Wall Street Journal, the UAE also carried out dozens of air strikes against Iran during the Israeli-US war on Iran. The strikes were reportedly coordinated with the US and Israel, which provided the UAE with intelligence. The UAE has also cracked down on Iranians and Iranian businesses based in the country.
Iranian authorities have, in turn, increasingly singled out the UAE in their war messaging, and have warned of stronger strikes against the country if the US and Israel resume their attacks. Among Gulf states, the UAE and Kuwait have thus far borne the brunt of Iranian attacks.
Bahrain – When the war began, Bahrain, which hosts the United States Navy’s Fifth Fleet, called attacks on its territory “treacherous”. It has since actively used its United Nations Security Council diplomacy to push resolutions condemning Iran’s action. Bahrain’s efforts to pass a UN resolution to open the Strait of Hormuz failed due to vetoes from China and Russia last month.
Kuwait – The country’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs denounced the Iranian attack on Kuwaiti soil as a “flagrant violation” of international law and said it had the right to respond. As the war drags on, Kuwait has repeatedly come under Iranian drone attacks and warned that any additional escalation would only deepen regional instability. Kuwait has blamed Iran for launching drone and missile attacks last week. Iran said it targeted a US interests in the country.
Saudi Arabia – Since the war began, Saudi Arabia has condemned in the “strongest terms” the Iranian attacks on Gulf Arab states and warned of “dire consequences”.
The country has also condemned Iran’s blockade of the Strait of Hormuz, calling it a flagrant violation of international law. Riyadh has been able to export oil from its Red Sea ports, undercutting the Hormuz blockade.
According to a May 12 article by the Reuters news agency, Saudi Arabia launched numerous, unpublicised strikes on Iran in retaliation for attacks carried out in the kingdom during the war. But the country has kept channels open for discussions with Iran. Foreign ministers from both countries have regularly held phone calls.
Iraq, closely allied with Iran since the overthrow of President Saddam Hussein in the 2003 US-led invasion, condemned the US-Israel strikes on Tehran while actively trying to prevent its own territory from being dragged into the conflict.
The country became a battleground between the Iran-aligned Popular Mobilisation Forces (PMF) and the US. Iraqi armed groups targeted regional countries as well as US installations inside Iraq.
The PMF headquarters in Iraq’s capital, Baghdad, was targeted along with other Shia factions by US forces.
In March, Iranian forces also launched an operation targeting Kurdish groups in the semi-autonomous Kurdish region of northern Iraq. Sporadic attacks on the groups have continued since then.
Economic worries are also weighing heavily after Iraq’s Ministry of Oil in March announced a case of force majeure on all oilfields developed by foreign oil companies, citing disruptions to navigation through the Strait of Hormuz, which have halted most of the country’s crude exports.
Iraq has struggled to balance its ties amid rising hostilities between Iran and the US and its regional allies. A US media report last month noted that Israel had clandestinely built two military bases in Iraq.
When the war began, Turkiye’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs called on “all parties” to end the spiral of violence, which it stressed started with US-Israeli strikes on Iran. “The events that began with Israel and the US attacking Iran, and continued with Iran targeting third countries, are of a nature that risks the future of our region and global stability,” said the ministry.
In May, however, a ballistic missile fired from Iran headed into Turkish airspace after passing over Syria and Iraq, the Turkish Ministry of National Defence said, adding that it had been destroyed by NATO air defence systems.
Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs Hakan Fidan conveyed in a call to his Iranian counterpart Ankara’s protest over the breach of its territory, the Reuters news agency reported.
Fidan visited several Gulf countries as part of Turkiye’s diplomatic efforts to end the war. He joined foreign ministers from Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Pakistan in Islamabad on March 29 to push for diplomacy – and over a week later, Pakistan announced the ceasefire.
Turkiye’s President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has urged an end to the war. In May, he told US President Trump that he welcomes the extension of a US-Iran ceasefire and believes disputed issues between the two sides can be resolved. The country has also called for freedom of navigation in the Strait of Hormuz.
Since the start of the war, Iran has launched missiles and drones towards Jordanian territory, which hosts US bases like the Muwaffaq Salti airbase. Iranian strikes targeted US air defence, satellite communication systems and other assets in Jordan. A radar for a US Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) missile defence system sustained significant damage in Iranian attacks.
Jordan has repeatedly urged the warring parties to halt hostilities and called on Israel to end its war on Lebanon.
Egypt has expressed deep concern regarding the war on Iran, calling for de-escalation and urgently appealing for a diplomatic resolution. “Nobody can stop the war in our region in the Gulf but you,” Egypt’s President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi told US President Trump in March.
Egypt joined other regional countries as part of diplomatic parleys. Egyptian Foreign Minister Badr Abdelatty held calls with his Iranian counterpart on Tuesday, while President el-Sisi spoke to his Iranian counterpart Masoud Pezeshkian just before the war started.
The African Union has condemned aggression against Gulf states and urged immediate de-escalation to protect international security. As the war drags on, the organisation has also expressed grave concern regarding the conflict’s impact on soaring food and fuel prices across the African continent.
Despite being one of the world’s largest oil-producing regions – accounting for roughly 12 percent of global reserves – Africa still imports more than 70 percent of its refined fuel, according to the Africa Finance Corporation (AFC), a multilateral financial institution created by African states. This has left many nations there, particularly those like Kenya with no or few biocarbon reserves, exposed to market volatility during the US-Israel war on Iran.
In April, the AFC warned that the continent is on course for an 86 million-tonne fuel shortfall by 2040, underscoring the widening gap between domestic production capacity and growing energy demands.
India – When the war began, India’s Ministry of External Affairs called on all parties to “exercise restraint” and “avoid escalation”.
But Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s trip to Israel days before the war started has been termed “ill-timed”. New Delhi neither condemned the US-Israeli war on Tehran nor the killing of Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, though the country’s Foreign Secretary Vikram Misri signed a condolence book at the Iranian Embassy in New Delhi.
New Delhi has, however, condemned Iranian attacks on nations in the Gulf, a major source of India’s oil imports and a destination for nearly 10 million Indian expats.
As the war has escalated with the blockade of the Strait of Hormuz, Indian ships in the strait have been attacked by Iran, and New Delhi has since urged Tehran to guarantee the unimpeded transit and safety of India-bound commercial shipping.
Besides attacks, India has also been impacted by the global energy crisis that began after the war. In May, Prime Minister Modi urged Indians to work from home, avoid international trips, and not buy gold to address the situation.
Iran has also opened a major diplomatic opening to India’s arch-foe, Pakistan.
Pakistan – Immediately after the US and Israel launched attacks on Iran, Pakistan’s Foreign Minister Ishaq Dar “strongly condemned the unwarranted attacks against Iran and called for an immediate halt to escalation through urgent resumption of diplomacy to achieve a peaceful, negotiated resolution to the crisis”.
Since then, Pakistan has positioned itself as a key mediator in the US-Iran conflict, urging both sides to uphold ceasefires and utilising high-level diplomatic visits to Tehran to push for a resolution. Pakistan was behind the April 8 ceasefire signed between the US and Iran, and has since helped advance talks to end the conflict. The country also hosted US Vice President JD Vance on April 13 for talks, though no agreement was reached.
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka – Dhaka has expressed concern over the war on Iran and has called for an end to hostilities, while Sri Lanka has tried to remain neutral. The economic impact of the war has, however, severely affected Bangladesh as well as Sri Lanka.
In March, Sri Lanka’s President Anura Kumara Dissanayake said his government turned down a request from the United States to land two US combat aircraft at a civilian airport and emphasised that the government was not going to take sides in the conflict.
In early March, Sri Lanka’s navy also rescued 32 Iranian crew from the frigate IRIS Dena after it was torpedoed by a US submarine off the country’s coast, killing at least 84 people. Days later, Sri Lanka evacuated more than 200 crew members from a second Iranian vessel, IRIS Bushehr, after the ship requested assistance from Colombo.
China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs has urged “an immediate halt to military actions” and appealed for “the resumption of dialogue and negotiations” to maintain regional peace and stability. It stressed that “Iran’s national sovereignty, security and territorial integrity should be respected”.
Since then, China has played a quieter role, shepherding phone calls and meetings with officials of Gulf countries. It has said it will work with Pakistan to “make positive contributions to the early restoration of peace and stability in the Middle East”.
Last month, Iranian Foreign Minister Abbas Araghchi met his Chinese counterpart, Wang Yi, in Beijing.
During the meeting, Araghchi said China is a close friend of Iran and bilateral “cooperation will even become stronger under current circumstances”, the Iranian Students’ News Agency reported.
Wang called for Iran and the US to reopen the Strait of Hormuz “as soon as possible”, according to a Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs statement.
“China considers that a complete cessation of fighting must be achieved without delay, that it is even more unacceptable to restart hostilities, and that continuing to negotiate remains essential,” the statement added.
In April, China, alongside Russia, also vetoed a UN Security Council resolution spearheaded by Bahrain, which sought to “coordinate defensive measures to protect commercial shipping in the Strait of Hormuz”.
When the US and Israel struck Iran on February 28, Dmitry Medvedev, deputy chairman of Russia’s Security Council, accused the US of having used its nuclear talks with Iran as a cover-up before military operations. The country’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs later urged the international community to swiftly deliver an objective assessment of what it called irresponsible actions that risk further destabilising the region.
In April, Iran’s Araghchi visited Russia and met President Vladimir Putin, who pledged that Moscow would remain a staunch ally of Tehran.
“We see how courageously and heroically the Iranian people are fighting for their independence and sovereignty,” Putin told Araghchi, saying he hoped they could get through a “difficult period” and that peace would prevail.
“For our part, we will do everything that serves your interests, the interests of all the people of the region, so that peace can be achieved as soon as possible,” Putin said, according to Russian state media.
In April, Russia said it would take in Iran’s highly enriched uranium stock as part of a peace deal with the US.
“This proposal was made by President Putin in conversations with both the United States and regional states. The offer still stands, but has not been acted upon,” Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov told reporters in the country.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) – which includes Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, and Timor-Leste – has called for an end to hostilities in the war and in May also expressed concerns about the economic impact of the war.
At a summit in the Philippines in May, ASEAN countries agreed on measures aimed at reducing the impact of the Iran war on their economies, but conceded that the initiatives will take considerable time to come into effect.
Leaders also agreed to develop a regional power grid and fuel stockpile, while reducing their dependence on energy imports from the Middle East. ASEAN currently imports more than half of its crude oil and 17 percent of its natural gas from the region, according to the bloc’s Centre for Energy. In late March, the Philippines became the first country in the world to declare a national emergency over dwindling energy stockpiles.
Japan has expressed grave concerns over the economic and geopolitical fallout of the US and Israeli strikes on Iran.
The country’s prime minister has also warned that shipping disruptions and energy shocks are having an “enormous impact” across the Asia-Pacific region.
In May, Prime Minister Sanae Takaichi said that “the effective closure of the Strait of Hormuz has been inflicting enormous impact on the Indo-Pacific”.
On June 1, she spoke to Iran’s President Pezeshkian and urged him to reach an agreement with the US as soon as possible and to ensure that the Strait of Hormuz is open to all vessels.
Tokyo, the world’s fourth largest economy, sources the bulk of its oil from the Middle East.
European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen and European Council President Antonio Costa have called the conflict “greatly concerning” and urged all parties “to exercise maximum restraint, to protect civilians, and to fully respect international law”.
In a joint statement, the prime ministers of France, Germany and the United Kingdom said they “condemn Iranian attacks on countries in the region in the strongest terms” and remain committed “to regional stability and to the protection of civilian life”. They also said they want a resumption of US-Iran negotiations.
Separately, French President Emmanuel Macron called for an urgent meeting of the UN Security Council, saying the conflict carries “serious consequences” for international peace and security. “The current escalation is dangerous for everyone. It must stop,” he said.
In April, the UK also gathered foreign ministers from 40 countries to discuss options to reopen the Strait of Hormuz. The US was not among the countries attending the meeting, since US President Trump stated that securing the waterway is not his country’s job. So far, the strait continues to be controlled by Iran.
The UK and EU have refused to join the war and militarily engage in opening the Strait of Hormuz. This has infuriated Trump. But Britain has continued to allow US jets to refuel and rearm from bases in the UK.
Canada – Canadian Prime Minister Mark Carney said the country stands with the Iranian people and “reaffirms Israel’s right to defend itself and to ensure the security of its people”. He said Canada supports the US “acting to prevent Iran from obtaining a nuclear weapon”.
In March, Carney said that he could not rule out his country’s military participation in the escalating war in the Middle East, after earlier saying that the US-Israeli strikes on Iran were “inconsistent with international law”.
Brazil – Brazil condemned US-Israeli strikes on Iran as violations of international law and has since been advocating for diplomatic mediation and addressing economic impacts on its fertiliser imports. The country has also been exporting crude oil to China and India to address the global energy crisis.
Mexico – Mexico has largely avoided a definitive stance on the US-Iran conflict and has instead focused on other issues, such as addressing Iran’s role in football’s upcoming World Cup. In May, Mexican President Claudia Sheinbaum announced that her country will host the Iranian national football team during the June 11-July 19 World Cup, due to tensions with the US. She added that FIFA, the global football governing body, had approached Mexico about hosting Iran, after the US said it did not wish to do so.
The United Nations has warned that the war on Iran is “out of control” and is threatening regional stability, with Secretary-General Antonio Guterres urging a diplomatic solution to avoid an unmitigated catastrophe.
Since Donald Trump began his second term as US president last year, Washington has undermined the UN and the existing international rules-based order.
But in May, US Secretary of State Marco Rubio urged the United Nations to pressure Iran “to stop blowing up ships, remove the mines and allow humanitarian relief” in the Strait of Hormuz, he told reporters on Tuesday.
“If the international community can’t rally behind this and solve something so straightforward, then I don’t know what the utility of the UN system is,” Rubio said.
Chris Featherstone, a political scientist at the University of York, noted that Trump’s refusal to set out the objectives of Washington’s military action against Iran meant that it was difficult for other nations to know how and when they could oppose this action.
“Trump has previously launched focused, short-term attacks on Iran,” he told Al Jazeera. “As such, some nations may have thought that they did not want to oppose Trump’s strikes if they were not going to last for long.”
But Featherstone noted that international opposition has increased over the course of the war. “In part, this is due to the length of the conflict, which was initially unexpected, and in part, this has been caused by the Trump administration’s handling of the conflict,” he said.
“However, the Trump administration’s actions have shown that they aren’t clear on how they want to end this conflict, increasing concerns from other nations. The impact of the blockading of the Strait of Hormuz has been global, and the Trump administration’s apparent lack of understanding and planning for this impact on the global economy will have also increased concerns amongst nations.”
Featherstone noted that the Trump administration’s rhetoric grew in extremity as the conflict progressed.
“Whilst the ceasefire has not been completely followed, it has brought some stability to the conflict; yet this stability is undermined by the administration’s inaccurate comments on the potential peace deal,” he said.
“Finally, the impact of this conflict has hit the cost of living around the world, and impacted the daily lives of millions, if not billions, of people. Governments around the world will be feeling pressured to oppose the conflict by their own voters opposing it.”
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